Introduction

Let us for a moment think of an aspirin; you will immediately recall the mark in the middle. This mark is designed to help those who take a half dose. Every product that we see around us, even if not as simple as the aspirin, is of a certain design, from the vehicles we use to go to work, to TV remote controls.
Design, in brief, means a harmonious assembling of various parts in an orderly form designed for a common goal. Going by this definition, one has no difficulty in guessing that a car is a design. This is because there is a certain goal, which is to transport people and cargo. In realisation of this goal, various parts such as the engine, tires and body are planned and assembled in a factory.
However, what about living creatures? Can a bird and the mechanics of its flight be a design as well? Before giving an answer, let us repeat the evaluation we did in the example of the car. The goal, in this case, is to fly. For this purpose, hollow, light-weight bones and the strong breast muscles that move these bones are utilised together with feathers capable of suspension in the air. Wings are formed aerodynamically, and the metabolism is in tune with the bird's need for high levels of energy. It is obvious that the bird is a product of a certain design.
If we leave aside the bird and examine other forms of life, we encounter the same truth. In every creature, there are examples of extremely well-conceived design. If we continue further on this quest, we discover that we ourselves are also a part of this design. Your hands that hold these pages are functional as no robot hands could ever be. Your eyes that read these lines are making vision possible with such focus that the best camera on earth simply cannot achieve.
Hence one arrives at this important conclusion; all creatures in nature, including us, are of a design. This, in turn, shows the existence of a Creator, Who designs all creatures at will, sustains the entire creation and holds absolute power and wisdom.
However, this truth is rejected by the theory of evolution that was formed in the middle of the 19^th century. The theory set forth in Charles Darwin's book On the Origin of Species asserts that all creatures evolved by chains of coincidences and mutated from one another.
According to the fundamental premise of this theory, all life forms go through minute random changes. If these random changes improve a life form, then it gains an advantage over the others, which in turn is carried onto following generations.
This scenario has been passed around for 140 years as if it is very scientific and convincing. When scrutinised under a larger microscope and when compared against the examples of the design in creatures, Darwin's theory paints a very different picture, i.e. Darwinism's explanation of life is nothing more than a self-contradictory vicious circle.
Let us first focus on the random changes. Darwin could not provide a comprehensive definition of this concept due to lack of knowledge of genetics in his time. The evolutionists who followed him suggested the concept of "mutation". Mutation is arbitrary disconnections, dislocations or shifts of genes in living things. Most importantly, there is not one single mutation in history that has been shown to improve the condition of a creature's genetic information. Nearly all the known cases of mutations disable or harm these creatures and the rest are neutral in effect. Therefore, to think that a creature can improve through mutation is the same as shooting at a crowd of people hoping that the injuries will result in healthier improved individuals. This is clearly nonsense.
As importantly, and contrary to all the scientific data, even if one assumes that a certain mutation could actually improve a being's condition, Darwinism still cannot be delivered from inevitable collapse. The reason for this is a concept called "irreducible complexity." The implication of this concept is that the majority of systems and organs in living things function as a result of various independent parts working together, the elimination or disabling of even one of which would be enough to disable the entire system or organ.
For example, an ear perceives sounds only through a sequence of smaller organs. Take out or deform one of these, e.g. one of the bones of the middle ear, and there would be no hearing whatsoever. In order for an ear to perceive, a variety of components - such as external auditory canal, tympanic membrane, bones in the middle ear, that is, the hammer, anvil and stirrup, fluid-filled cochlea, hearing receptors or hair cells, the cilia which help these cells to sense the vibrations, the net of nerves that connect to the brain and hearing centre in the brain - have to work together without exception. The system could not have developed in segments because none of the segments could possibly function alone.
Hence, the concept of irreducible complexity demolishes the theory of evolution at its foundations. Interestingly, Darwin also worried about these very prospects. He wrote in On The Origin of Species:
If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down.1
Darwin could not, or might not have wanted to, find such an organ at the premature levels of 19th century science. However the science of the 20th century did study nature in minute details and proved that the majority of living structures embody irreducible complexity. Therefore, Darwin's theory has "absolutely" collapsed just as he feared.
In this book, we are going to explore various examples of systems in living beings that demolish Darwin's theory. These mechanisms will be found anywhere from in the wings of a bird to inside a bat's skull. As we examine these examples we will not only see the immense error Darwinism makes but also witness the greatness of the wisdom with which these systems were created.
Hence, we will see the indisputable evidence of Allah's flawless creation. Likewise, the power and artistry of Allah to create flawlessly is expressed in a surah of the Qur'an as follows:

He is Allah - the Creator, the Maker, the Giver of Form. To Him belong the Most Beautiful Names. Everything in the heavens and earth glorifies Him. He is the Almighty, the All-Wise. (Surat al-Hashr: 24)

An Example of Irreducible Complexity: The Eye of the Lobster

There are many different types of eye in the living world. We are accustomed to the camera-type eye found in vertebrates. This structure works on the principle of the refraction of light, which falls onto the lens and is focused on a point behind the lens inside the interior of the eye.
However, the eyes possessed by other creatures work by different methods. One example is the lobster. A lobster's eye works on a principle of reflection rather than that of refraction.
The most outstanding characteristic of the lobster eye is its surface, which is composed of numerous squares. As shown in the picture on the next page, these squares are positioned most precisely.
The eye of a lobster shows a remarkable geometry not found elsewhere in nature - it has tiny facets that are perfectly square, so it "looks like perfect graph paper."2
These well-arranged squares are in fact the ends of tiny square tubes forming a structure resembling a honeycomb. At first glance, the honeycomb appears to be made up of hexagons, although these are actually the front faces of hexagonal prisms. In the lobster's eye, there are the squares in place of hexagons.
Even more intriguing is that the sides of each one of these square tubes are like mirrors that reflect the incoming light. This reflected light is focused onto the retina flawlessly. The sides of the tubes inside the eye are lodged at such perfect angles that they all focus onto a single point.3
The extraordinary nature of the design of this system is quite indisputable. All of these perfect square tubes have a layer that works just like a mirror. Furthermore, each one of these cells is sited by means of precise geometrical alignments so that they all focus the light at a single point.
It is obvious that the design in the lobster eye presents a great difficulty for the theory of evolution. Most importantly, it exemplifies the concept of "irreducible complexity." If even one of its features - such as the facets of the eye, which are perfect squares, the mirrored sides of each unit, or the retina layer at the back - were eliminated, the eye could never function. Therefore, it is impossible to maintain that the eye evolved step-by-step. It is scientifically unjustifiable to argue that such a perfect design as this could have come about haphazardly. It is quite clear that the lobster eye was created as a miraculous system.

The lobster eye is composed of numerous squares. These well-arranged squares are in fact the ends of tiny square tubes. The sides of each one of these square tubes are like mirrors that reflect the incoming light. This reflected light is focused onto the retina flawlessly. The sides of the tubes inside the eye are lodged at such perfect angles that they all focus onto a single point.

One can find further traits in the lobster's eye that nullify the assertions of evolutionists. An interesting fact emerges when one looks at creatures with similar eye structures. The reflecting eye, of which the lobster's eye was one example, is found in only one group of crustaceans, the so-called long-bodied decapods. This family includes the lobsters, the prawns and the shrimp.
The other members of the crustacea class display the "refracting type eye structure", which works on completely different principles from those of the reflecting type. Here, the eye is made up of hundreds of cells like a honeycomb. Unlike the square cells in a lobster eye, these cells are either hexagonal or round. Furthermore, instead of reflecting light, small lenses in the cells refract the light onto the focus on the retina.
The majority of crustaceans have the refracting eye structure. On the contrary, only one group of the crustaceans, namely the long-bodied decapods, have reflecting eyes. According to evolutionist assumptions, all the creatures within the class Crustacea should have evolved from the same ancestor. Therefore, evolutionists claim that reflecting eye evolved from a refracting eye, which is far more common among the crustacea and of a fundamentally simpler design.
However, such reasoning is impossible, because both eye structures function perfectly within their own systems and have no room for any "transitional" phase. A crustacean would be left sightless and would be eliminated by natural selection if the refracting lens in its eye were to diminish and be replaced by reflecting mirrored surfaces.
It is, therefore, certain that both of these eye structures were designed and created separately. There is such superb geometric precision in these eyes that entertaining the possibility of "coincidence" is simply ludicrous. Just like the rest of the miracles of creation, the lobster's eye structure is an open testimony to the Creator's boundless power to create flawlessly. This is nothing but a manifestation of Allah's endless knowledge, wisdom and might. We can encounter such miracles as these regardless of what we examine in the world of creation.

THE MIRACULOUS DESIGN IN THE FLIGHT OF INSECTS

When the subject of flight is considered, birds immediately come to mind. However, birds are not the only creatures that can fly. Many species of insects are equipped with flight capabilities superior to those of birds. The Monarch butterfly can fly from North America to the interior of Continental America. Flies and dragonflies can remain suspended in the air.
Evolutionists claim that insects started flying 300 million years ago. Nonetheless, they are not able to provide any conclusive answers to fundamental questions such as: how did the first insect develop wings, take flight or keep suspended in the air?
Evolutionists only claim that some layers of skin on the body probably could have turned into wings. Aware of the unsoundness of their claim, they also assert that the fossil specimens to verify this assertion are not available yet.
Nevertheless, the flawless design of insect wings leaves no room for coincidence. In an article entitled "The Mechanical Design of Insect Wings" the English biologist Robin Wootton writes:
The better we understand the functioning of insect wings, the more subtle and beautiful their designs appear... Structures are traditionally designed to deform as little as possible; mechanisms are designed to move component parts in predictable ways. Insect wings combine both in one, using components with a wide range of elastic properties, elegantly assembled to allow appropriate deformations in response to appropriate forces and to make the best possible use of the air. They have few if any technological parallels-yet.4
On the other hand, there is not a single fossil evidence for the imaginary evolution of insects. That is what the famous French zoologist Pierre Paul Grassé referred to when he stated, "We are in the dark concerning the origin of insects."5 Now let us examine some of the interesting features of these creatures that leave the evolutionists in complete darkness.

“He is Allah - the Creator, the Maker, the Giver of Form. To Him belong the Most Beautiful Names. Everything in the heavens and earth glorifies Him. He is the Almighty, the All-Wise.” (Surat al-Hashr: 24)

The Inspiration for the Helicopter: The Dragonfly

The wings of the dragonfly cannot be folded back on its body. In addition, the way in which the muscles for flight are used in the motion of the wings differs from the rest of insects. Because of these properties, evolutionists claim that dragonflies are "primitive insects".
In contrast, the flight system of these so-called "primitive insects" is nothing less than a wonder of design. The world's leading helicopter manufacturer, Sikorsky, finished the design of one of their helicopters by taking the dragonfly as a model.6 IBM, which assisted Sikorsky in this project, started by putting a model of a dragonfly in a computer (IBM 3081). Two thousand special renderings were done on computer in the light of the manoeuvres of the dragonfly in air. Therefore, Sikorsky's model for transporting personnel and artillery was built upon examples derived from dragonflies.

Nature photographer Gilles Martin observing dragonflies.

Gilles Martin, a nature photographer, has done a two year study examining dragonflies, and he also concluded that these creatures have an extremely complex flight mechanism.
The body of a dragonfly looks like a helical structure wrapped with metal. Two wings are cross-placed on a body that displays a colour gradation from ice blue to maroon. Because of this structure, the dragonfly is equipped with superb manoeuvrability. No matter at what speed or direction it is already moving, it can immediately stop and start flying in the opposite direction. Alternatively, it can remain suspended in air for the purpose of hunting. At that position, it can move quite swiftly towards its prey. It can accelerate up to a speed that is quite surprising for an insect: 25mph (40km/h), which would be identical to an athlete running 100 metres in the Olympics at 24.4mph (39km/h).
At this speed, it collides with its prey. The shock of the impact is quite strong. However, the armoury of the dragonfly is both very resistant and very flexible. The flexible structure of its body absorbs the impact of collision. However, the same cannot be said for its prey. The dragonfly's prey would pass out or even be killed by the impact.
Following the collision, the rear legs of dragonfly take on the role of its most lethal weapons. The legs stretch forward and capture the shocked prey, which is then swiftly dismembered and consumed by powerful jaws.

Sikorsky helicopters were designed in imitation of the flawless design and manoeuvr ability of a dragonfly.

The sight of the dragonfly is as impressive as is its ability to perform sudden manoeuvres at high speed. The eye of the dragonfly is accepted as the best example among all the insects. It has a pair of eyes, each of which features approximately thirty thousand different lenses. Two semi-spherical eyes, each nearly half the size of the head, provide the insect a very wide visual field. Because of these eyes, the dragonfly can almost keep an eye on its back.
Therefore, the dragonfly is an assemblage of systems, each of which has a unique and perfect structure. Any malfunction in any one of these systems would derail the other systems as well. However, all of these systems are created without flaw and, hence, the creature lives on.

The Wings of the Dragonfly

The most significant feature of the dragonfly is its wings. However, it is not possible through a model of progressive evolution to explain the flight mechanism that enables the use of the wings. First, the theory of evolution is at a loss on the subject of the origin of wings because they could only function if they developed altogether at once, in order to operate correctly.
Let us assume, for a moment, that the genes of an insect on land underwent a mutation and some parts of the skin tissue on the body showed an uncertain change. It would be quite beyond reason to suggest that another mutation on top of this change could "coincidentally" add up to a wing. Furthermore, neither would the mutations to the body provide a whole wing to the insect nor would it do any good but decrease its mobility. The insect, then, needs to carry extra load, which does not serve any real purpose. This would put the insect at a disadvantage against rivals. Moreover, according to the fundamental principle of the theory of evolution, natural selection would have made this handicapped insect and its descendants extinct.

The eye of a dragonfly is considered the world's most complicated insect eye structure. Each eye contains about thirty thousand lenses. These eyes occupy about half the area of the head and provide the insect with a very wide visual field because of which it can almost keep an eye on its back. The wings of a dragonfly are of such a complex design that they make any conception of coincidence's involvement in their origin nonsense. The aerodynamic membrane of the wings and each pore on the membrane is a direct result of plan and calculation.

Mutations, moreover, occur very seldom. They always harm the creatures, leading to deadly sicknesses in most cases. This is why it is impossible for small mutations to cause some formations on the body of a dragonfly to evolve into a flight mechanism. After all this, let us ask ourselves: even if we assume, against all odds, that the scenario suggested by evolutionists might have been real, why is it that the "primitive dragonfly" fossils which would give substance to this scenario do not exist?

The chitin substance surrounding the body of insects is strong enough to act as a skeleton, which in this insect, is formed into a very eye-catching colour.

There is no difference between the oldest dragonfly fossils and the dragonflies of today. There is no remains of "a half-dragonfly" or a "dragonfly with newly emerging wings" that predates these oldest fossils.
Just as the rest of the life forms, the dragonfly, too, appeared all at once and has not changed to this day. In other words, it was created by Allah and never "evolved".
The skeletons of insects are formed by a tough, protective substance, called chitin. This substance was created with enough strength to form the exoskeleton. It is also flexible enough to be moved by the muscles used for flight. The wings can move back and forth or up and down. This motion of wings is facilitated by a complex joint structure. The dragonfly has two pairs of wings, one in a forward position with respect to the other. The wings operate asynchronously. That is, while the two frontal wings ascend, the back pair of wings descend.
Two opposing muscle groups move the wings. The muscles are tied to levers inside the body. While one group of muscles pull up a pair of wings by contracting, the other muscle group opens the other pair by reflexing. Helicopters ascend and descend by a similar technique. This allows a dragonfly to hover, go backward, or quickly change direction.

The figure above shows the wing movement of a dragonfly during flight. The front wings are marked with red dots. A close examination reveals that the front and back pairs of wings are flapped to a different rhythm, which gives the insect a superb flight technique. The motion of the wings is made possible by special muscles operating in harmony.

Metamorphosis of the Dragonfly

A 250 million-year-old fossil dragonfly and a modern dragonfly

Female dragonflies do not mate again after fertilisation. However, this does not create any problem for the males of the Calopteryx Virgo species. By using the hooks on its tail, the male captures the female by the neck (1). The female wraps her legs around the tail of the male. The male, by using special extensions on its tail (2), cleans any possible sperm left from another male. Then, he injects his sperm into the female's reproductive cavity. Since this process takes hours, they sometimes fly in this clenched position. The dragonfly leaves the mature eggs in the shallows of a lake or a pool (3). Once the nymph hatches from the egg, it lives in water for three to four years (4). During this time, it also feeds in water (5). For this reason, it was created with a body capable of swimming fast enough to catch a fish and jaws powerful enough to dismember a prey. As the nymph grows, the skin wrapping its body tightens. It sheds this skin at four different times. When it is time for the final change, it leaves the water and starts climbing a tall plant or a rock (6). It climbs until its legs give in. Then, it secures itself by help of clamps at the tips of its feet. One slip and a fall means death at that point.
This last phase differs from the previous four in that Allah moulds the nymph into a flying creature through a wonderful transformation.
The back of the nymph cracks first (7). The crack widens and becomes an open slot through which a new creature, totally different from the preceding, struggles to get out. This extremely fragile body is secured with ties that stretch from the previous creature (8). These ties are created to have ideal transparency and flexibility. Otherwise they would break and not be able to carry it, which could mean that the larva could fall into the water and perish.
In addition, there are a series of special mechanisms that help the dragonfly to shed its skin. The body of the dragonfly shrinks and becomes wrinkled in the old body. In order to "open" this body, a special pump system and a special body fluid are created to be used in this process. These wrinkled body parts of the insect are inflated by pumping body fluid after getting out through the slot (9). In the meantime, chemical solvents start to break the ties of the new legs with the old ones without damage. This process takes place perfectly even though it would be devastating if only one of the legs were stuck. The legs are left to dry and harden for about twenty minutes before any testing.
The wings are fully developed already but are in a folded position. The body fluid is pumped by firm contractions of the body into the wing tissues (10). The wings are left drying after stretching (11).
After it leaves the old body and dries out completely, the dragonfly tests all the legs and wings. The legs are folded and stretched one by one and wings are raised and lowered.
Finally, the insect attains the form designed for flight. It is very hard for anyone to believe that this perfectly flying creature is the same as the caterpillar-like creature that left the water (12).
The dragonfly pumps the excess fluids out, to balance the system. The metamorphosis is complete and the insect is ready to fly.
One faces the impossibility of the claims of evolution again when one tries by reasoning to find the origin of this miraculous transformation. The theory of evolution claims that all creatures came about through random changes. However, the metamorphosis of the dragonfly is an extremely intricate process that leaves no room for even a small error in any phase.
The slightest obstacle in any one of these phases would cause metamorphosis to be incomplete resulting in the injury or death of dragonfly. Metamorphosis is truly an "irreducibly complex" cycle and therefore is an explicit proof of design.
In short, the metamorphosis of dragonfly is one of the countless evidences of how flawlessly Allah creates living things. The wonderful art of Allah manifests itself even in an insect.

Mechanics of Flight

The wings of flies are vibrated according to the electric signals conducted by the nerves. For example, in a grasshopper each one of these nerve signals results in one contraction of the muscle that in turn moves the wing. Two opposing muscle groups, known as "lifters" and "sinkers", enable the wings to move up and down by pulling in opposite directions.

The double balance wing system is found to function in insects with less frequent flapping.

Grasshoppers flap their wings twelve to fifteen times a second but smaller insects need a higher rate in order to fly. For instance, while honeybees, wasps and flies flap their wings 200 to 400 times per second this rate goes up to 1000 in sandflies and some 1mm long parasites.7 Another explicit evidence of perfect creation is a 1mm long flying creature that can flap its wings at the extraordinary rate of one thousand times a second without burning, tearing or wearing out the insect. When we examine these flying creatures a little closer, our appreciation for their design multiplies.
It was mentioned that their wings are activated by means of electrical signals conducted through the nerves. However, a nerve cell is only capable of transmitting a maximum of 200 signals per second. Then, how is it possible for the little flying insects to achieve 1000 wing flaps per second?
The flies that flap wings 200 times per second have a nerve-muscle relationship that is different from that of grasshoppers. There is one signal conducted for each ten wing flaps. In addition, the muscles known as fibrous muscles work in a way different from the grasshopper's muscles. The nerve signals only alert the muscles in preparation for the flight and, when they reach a certain level of tension, they relax by themselves.
There is a system in flies, honeybees, and wasps that transforms wing flaps into "automatic" movements. The muscles that enable flight in these insects are not directly tied to the bones of the body. The wings are attached to the chest with a joint that functions like a pivot. The muscles that move the wings are connected at the bottom and top surfaces of the chest. When these muscles contract, the chest moves in the opposite direction, which, in turn, creates a downward pull.
Relaxing a group of muscles automatically results in contraction of an opposite group followed by relaxation. In other words, this is an "automatic system". This way, muscle movements continue without interruption until an opposite alert signal is delivered through the nerves that control the system.8
A flight mechanism of this sort could be compared to a clock that works on the basis of a wound spring. The parts are so strategically located that a single move easily sets the wings in motion. It is impossible not to see the flawless design in this example. The perfect creation of Allah is evident.

DOUBLE BALANCED WING SYSTEM

Some flies flap their wings up to a thousand times per second. In order to facilitate this extraordinary movement, a very special system was created. Rather than directly moving the wings, the muscles activate a special tissue to which the wings are attached by a pivot-like joint. This special tissue enables the wings to flap numerous times with a single stroke.

System Behind the Thrusting Force

encarsia

It is not enough to flap wings up and down in order to maintain smooth flight. The wings have to change angles during each flap to create a force of thrust as well as an up-lift. The wings have a certain flexibility for rotation depending on the type of insect. The main flight muscles, which also produce the necessary energy for flight, provide this flexibility.
For instance, in ascending higher, these muscles between wing joints contract further to increase the wing angle. Examinations conducted utilising high-speed film techniques revealed that the wings followed an elliptical path while in flight. In other words, the fly does not only move its wings up and down but it moves them in a circular motion as in rowing a boat on water. This motion is made possible by the main muscles.
The greatest problem encountered by insect species with small bodies is inertia reaching significant levels. Air behaves as if stuck to the wings of these little insects and reduces wing efficiency greatly.

Dust flies require large amounts of energy in order to maintain 1000 flaps per second. This energy is found in the carbohydrate-rich nutrients they gather from flowers. Because of their yellow and black stripes and their resemblance to bees, these flies manage to avoid the attention of many attackers.

Therefore, some insects, the wing size of which does not exceed one mm, have to flap their wings 1000 times per second in order to overcome inertia.
Researchers think that even this speed alone is not enough to lift the insect and that they make use of other systems as well.
As an example, some types of small parasites, Encarsia, make use of a method called "clap and peel". In this method, the wings are clapped together at the top of the stroke and then peeled off. The front edges of the wings, where a hard vein is located, separate first, allowing airflow into the pressurised area in between. This flow creates a vortex helping the up-lift force of the wings clapping.9

A fly is 100 billion times smaller than an aircraft. Nevertheless, it is equipped with a complex device functioning just like a gyroscope and a horizontal leveller, which are vitally important for flying. Its manoeuvrability and flight techniques, on the other hand, are far superior to those of the plane.

There is another special system created for insects to maintain a steady position in the air. Some flies have only a pair of wings and round shaped organs on the back called halteres. The halteres beat like a normal wing during flight but do not produce any lift like wings do. The halteres move as the flight direction changes, and prevent the insect from losing its direction. This system resembles the gyroscope used for navigation in today's aircraft.10

Many insects can fold their wings. When folded, the wings are easily manoeuvred by the help of auxiliary parts on their tips. The U.S. Air Force has produced E6B Intruder aircraft with folding wings after being inspired by this example. While bees and flies are able to fold their entire wings onto themselves, the E6B can only fold one half of its wing over the other.

ResilinThe wing joint is comprised of a special protein, called resilin, which has tremendous flexibility. In laboratories, chemical engineers are working to reproduce this chemical, which demonstrates properties far superior to natural or artificial rubber. Resilin is a substance capable of absorbing the force applied to it as well as releasing the entire energy back once that force is lifted. From this point of view, the efficiency of resilin reaches the very high value of 96%. This way, approximately 85% of the energy used to lift the wing is stored and reused while lowering it.11 The chest walls and muscles are also built to help this phenomenon.

	The figure on left shows the manoeuvring capability of three aircraft that are considered the best in their categories. However, flies and bees are able to suddenly change course in any direction without reducing speed. This example clearly demonstrates how weak the technology of jet planes is in comparison with bees and flies.
The figure, which indicates the route travelled by a bee placed inside a glass cube, shows how successful the bee is in flying in any direction including upward and downward, in landings and take offs.

The Respiratory System Special to Insects

Flies fly at extremely high speeds when compared to their size. Dragonflies can travel as fast as 25 mph (40 km/h). Even smaller insects can reach up to 31 mph (50km/h). These speeds are equivalent to humans travelling at the speed of thousands of miles per hour. Humans can only reach these speeds using jet planes. However, when one considers the size of jet planes in comparison to the size of humans it becomes clear that these flies actually fly faster than aeroplanes.
Jets use very special fuels to power their high-speed engines. The flight of flies, too, requires high levels of energy. There is also a need for large volumes of oxygen in order to burn this energy. The need for great amounts of oxygen is satisfied by an extraordinary respiratory system lodged within the bodies of flies and other insects.

There is an extraordinary system created in the bodies of flies and other insects in order to meet the need for a high oxygen supply: Air, just as in blood circulation, is carried directly into tissues by means of special tubes. Above is an example of this system in grasshoppers: A) The windpipe of a grasshopper pictured by an electron microscope. Around the walls of the pipe, there is spiral reinforcement similar to that of the vacuum cleaner hose. B) Each windpipe tube delivers oxygen to the cells of the insect's body and removes carbon dioxide.

This respiratory system works quite differently from ours. We take air into our lungs. Here, oxygen mixes with the blood and then is carried on to all parts of the body by the blood. The fly's need of oxygen is so high that there is no time to wait for the oxygen to be delivered to the body cells by the blood. To deal with this problem, there is a very special system. The air tubes in the insect's body carry the air to different parts of the fly's body. Just like the circulatory system in the body, there is an intricate and complex network of tubes (called the tracheal system) that delivers oxygen-containing air to every cell of the body.
Thanks to this system, the cells that make up the flight muscles take oxygen directly from these tubes. This system also helps to cool down the muscles which function at such high rates as 1000 cycles per second.
It is evident that this system is an example of creation. No coincidental process can explain an intricate design. It is also impossible for this system to have developed in phases as suggested by evolution. Unless the tracheal system is fully functional, no intermediate stage could be to the advantage of the creature, but on the contrary, would harm it by rendering its respiratory system non-functional.
All of the systems that we have explored so far uniformly demonstrate that there is an extraordinary design to even the least significant of creatures such as flies. Any single fly is a miracle that testifies to the flawless design in the creation of Allah. On the other hand, the "evolutionary process" espoused by Darwinism is far from explaining how a single system in a fly develops.
In the Qur'an, Allah invites all humans to consider this fact:

Mankind! An example has been made, so listen to it carefully. Those whom you call upon besides Allah are not even able to create a single fly, even if they were to join together to do it. And if a fly steals something from them, they cannot get it back. How feeble are both the seeker and the sought! (Surat al-Hajj: 73)

"…THEY ARE NOT EVEN ABLE TO CREATE A SINGLE FLY…"

Even a single fly is superior to all the technological devices that mankind has produced. Furthermore, it is a "living being". Aircraft and helicopters are of use for an appointed time after which they are left to rust. The fly, on the other hand, produces similar offspring.

"Mankind! An example has been made, so listen to it carefully. Those whom you call upon besides Allah are not even able to create a single fly, even if they were to join together to do it... They do not measure Allah with His true measure. Allah is All-Strong, Almighty." (Surat al-Hajj: 73-74)

The flight of a housefly is an extremely complex phenomenon. First, the fly meticulously inspects the organs to be used in navigation. Then, it takes position ready for flight by adjusting the balancing organs in front. Lastly, it calculates the angle of take-off, dependent on wind direction and velocity, by means of the sensors on its antennae. Then it takes flight. But, all of these happen within one hundredth of a second. Once airborne, it can accelerate rapidly and reach a speed of 6 mph (10 km/h).
For this reason, we could well use the nickname "master of acrobatic flight" for it. It can fly in extraordinary zigzags through the air. It can take off vertically from where it stands. No matter how slippery or uninviting the surface, it can land successfully anywhere.

(left) A fly can easily walk on the most slippery surfaces or stand still on a ceiling for hours. Its feet are better equipped to hold on to glass, walls and ceilings than those of a climber. If the retractable claws are not enough, suction pads on its feet attach it to the surface. The holding strength of the suction has been increased with a specially applied fluid. (right) The housefly uses the labellum in its mouthpart to "quality test" food before feeding. Unlike many creatures, flies digest their food externally. It applies a solvent fluid to the food. This fluid dissolves the food into a liquid that the fly can suck. Then, the fly takes the liquid nutrients into itself by means of the labella which gently dabs liquids into its proboscis.

Another feature of this magical master of flight is its ability to land on ceilings. Because of gravity it shouldn't hold on but fall down. However, it has been created with certain systems to render the impossible possible. At the tip of its legs, there are minute suction pads. In addition, these pads exude a sticky fluid when in touch with a surface. This sticky fluid enables it to remain attached to a ceiling. While approaching ceiling, it stretches its legs forward and as soon as it senses the touch of a ceiling it flips around and takes hold of the ceiling's surface. The housefly has two wings. These wings, that are halfway merged in the body and are comprised of a very thin membrane intersected by veins, can be operated independently from one another. However, while in flight they move back and forth on one axis just as in single-winged planes. The muscles enabling movement of the wings contract at take-off and relax on landing. Although controlled by nerves at the beginning of flight, these muscles and wing movements become automatic after a while.
Sensors under the wings and on the back of its head send information about the flight immediately to its brain. If the fly encounters a new airflow during flight, these sensors promptly send the necessary signals to the brain. The muscles, then, start to direct the wings according to the new situation. That is how a fly can detect another insect creating extra airflow and can escape to safety most of the time. The housefly moves its wings hundreds of times a second. The energy spent during flight is roughly a hundred times that spent during rest. From this point of view, we can say that it is a very powerful creature because human metabolism can only spend ten times as much energy in emergency situations in comparison to during the normal tempo of life. In addition, a human can maintain this energy expenditure for a maximum of only a few minutes. In contrast, the housefly can sustain that rhythm for up to half an hour and it can travel up to a mile at the same speed.12

The design of its wings gives a fly its superior flying skills. The edges, surfaces and veins of these wings are covered with highly sensitive sensory hairs which enable the fly to detect airflow and mechanical pressures.		The housefly's eye is composed of 6000 hexagonally arranged eye structures, called ommatidia. Since each ommatidium is directed in different directions, e.g. forwards, backwards, beneath, above and on all sides, the fly can see everywhere. In other words, it can sense everything within a 360-degree visual field. Eight photo receptors (light-receiving) neurons are attached to each one of these units therefore the total number of sensor cells in an eye is about 48,000. This is how it can process up to one hundred images per second.

Flawless Flying Machines: Birds

Have they not looked at the birds above them, with wings outspread and folded back? Nothing holds them up but the All-Merciful. He sees all things. (Surat al-Mulk:19)

Because they believe that the birds must have somehow evolved, evolutionists assert that birds are descendants of reptiles. However, the progressive model of evolution cannot explain any of the body mechanisms of birds, which have a completely different structure from land-dwelling animals. First, the primary feature of birds, i.e. wings, is a great obstacle for the theory of evolution to explain. One of the Turkish evolutionists, Engin Korur, makes the following confession in reference to the impossibility of the evolution of wings:
The common trait of eyes and the wings is that they can only function if they are fully developed. In other words, a halfway-developed eye cannot see and a bird with half-formed wings cannot fly. How these organs came into being is one of those mysteries of nature that has still to be accounted for.13
The question of how the flawless structure of wings might have been formed through a series of consecutive random mutations remains completely unanswered. The process in which the front leg of a reptile could transform into a flawless wing seems to be as inexplicable as ever.
Furthermore, the existence of wings is not the only prerequisite for a land creature to become a bird. Land-dwelling animals totally lack a number of mechanisms that are used by birds in flying. For example, the bones of birds are considerably lighter than those of land-dwelling animals. Their lungs are of a different structure and function as well as are their skeletal and muscular structures. Their circulatory systems are much more specialised than those of land animals. All of these mechanisms could not possibly come into existence over time through an "accumulative process". Assertions of the transformation of land-dwelling animals into birds are, therefore, only nonsensical claims.

Structure of Bird Feathers

The theory of evolution, which claims that birds are descendants of reptiles, is not able to explain the colossal differences between these two classes of beings. Birds display properties distinct from reptiles in having a skeletal structure composed of hollow, extremely lightweight bones, and a unique respiratory system and in being warm-blooded creatures. Another structure unique to birds, which places an unbridgeable gap between birds and reptiles, is the feather.

Feathers are the most important of the interesting aesthetical aspects of birds. The phrase "light as a feather" depicts the perfection in the intricate structure of a feather.
Feathers are constructed of a protein substance called keratin. Keratin is a hard and durable material that is formed by the old cells that migrate away from the nutrient and oxygen sources in the deeper layers of the skin and die in order to give way to new cells.
The design in bird feathers is so complex that the process of evolution simply cannot explain it. Scientist Alan Feduccia says feathers "have an almost magical structural complexity" which "allows a mechanical aerodynamic refinement never achieved by other means".14 Although he is an evolutionist, Feduccia also admits that "feathers are a near-perfect adaptation for flight" because they are lightweight, strong, aedodynamically shaped, and have an intricate structure of barbs and hooks.15
The design of feathers also compelled Charles Darwin ponder them. Moreover, the perfect aesthetics of the peacock's feathers had made him "sick" (his own words). In a letter he wrote to Asa Gray on April 3, 1860, he said "I remember well the time when the thought of the eye made me cold all over, but I have got over this stage of complaint..." And then continued:
... and now trifling particulars of structure often make me very uncomfortable. The sight of a feather in a peacock's tail, whenever I gaze at it, makes me sick!16

Small Barbs and Hooklets

One encounters an incredible design if the feather of a bird is examined under the microscope. As we all know, there is a shaft that runs up the centre of the feather. Hundreds of small barbs grow on either side of this shaft. Barbs of varying softness and size give the bird its aerodynamic nature. Furthermore, each barb has thousands of even smaller strands attached to them called barbules, which cannot be observed with the naked eye. These barbules are locked together with hooklike hamuli. The barbules hold on to one another like a zip with the help of these hooklets. For example, just one crane feather has about 650 barbs on each side of the shaft. About 600 barbules branch off each of the barbs. Each one of these barbules are locked together with 390 hooklets. The hooks latch together as do the teeth on both sides of a zip. These barbules interlock so tightly that even smoke blown at the feather cannot penetrate through it. If the hooklets come apart for any reason, the bird can easily restore the feathers to their original form by either shaking itself or by straightening its feathers out with its beak.

Feathers spring from a hollow cylindrical structure of the skin. A chick that is 2-3 hours old primarily has feathers for warmth.

In order to survive, birds have to keep their feathers clean, well-groomed and always ready for flight. They use an oil-gland located at the base of their tails for the maintenance of their feathers. They clean and polish their feathers by means of this oil, which also provides water proofing when they are swimming, diving or walking and flying in rain.
In addition, in cold weather the feathers prevent the body temperature of birds from falling. The feathers are pressed closer to the body in hot weather in order to keep it cool.17

Types of Feather

Feathers take on different functions depending on where on the body they are located. The feathers on a bird's body have different properties from those on the wings or tail. The full-feathered tail functions to steer and brake. On the other hand, wing feathers have a distinct structure that enables the surface area to expand during beating in order to increase forces of up-lift. When the wing is flapped downward, the feathers come closer together, preventing the through passage of air. When the wing is in an upward movement the feathers open up, to give way to the passage of air.18 Birds shed their feathers during certain periods in order to maintain their abilities to fly. Worn or damaged large feathers are renewed immediately.

THE ARTISTRY OF THE WINGS

This serial motion depicts various phases in a sparrow's flight: take-off, short flight and landing.

Feathers on the head, body and wings protect the birds from moisture and cold. They also help in the bird's soaring in the air. Feathers on the side cover the delicate skin that helps regulate body temperature.

Due to the curvature of the wing, air pressure on the upper surface is weaker than on the under surface, which in turn lifts the bird into the air (bottom left). If the wing is curved, further airflow at the top increases the pressure creating a downward force. This way the bird stalls The wing of a goatsucker

Yellow lines indicate the curvature of the wing.

The wing of a falcon

(left) There are primarily three forms of flight (from top to bottom): Serial flight, V-formation and group flight. (right) The majority of birds can fly, but not all move the same way. Some birds have such advanced flying skills that they can fly very close to the earth. The shape of the wings depends on the species.

FEATURES OF THE FLYING MACHINES

A close examination of birds reveals that they are designed specifically for flying. The body has been created with air-sacs and hollow bones in order to reduce body mass and overall weight. The fluid nature of their wastes ensures that excess water in the body is disposed of. Feathers are extremely light structures in comparison to their volume.
Let us examine these special structures of birds one by one:

1- The skeleton

The strength of a bird's skeleton is more than adequate even though the bones are hollow. For example, a hawfinch 7 inches long (18 cm) exerts about 151 lbs. (68.5 kg) pressure in order to crack open an olive seed. Better "organised" than land animals, the shoulder, hip and chest bones of birds are fused together. This design improves the strength of the bird's structure. Another feature of the skeleton of birds, as mentioned previously, is that it is lighter than in all other land-dwelling animals. For instance, the skeleton of the dove weighs only about 4.4% of its total body weight. The bones of the frigate bird weigh 118 gr, which is less than the total weight of its feathers.

Bird bones are extremely light but sturdy, largely because they are hollow. There is air inside the cavities where supporting bars stiffen the bones. These hollow bones are the main inspirations for the design of modern aeroplane wings.

2- Respiratory System

THE SPECIAL LUNGS OF BIRDSBirds have a ery different anatomy from their alleged ancestors, the reptiles. Bird lungs operate in a completely different fashion from those of land animals. Land animals inhale and exhale air through the same windpipe. In birds, however, the air enters and exits through opposite ends. A special "design" such as this has been created to provide for the high volumes of air needed during flight. Evolution of such a structure from that of reptiles is not possible.

The respiratory system of land animals and birds operate on completely different principles, primarily because birds need oxygen in much greater quantities than do land animals. For example, a certain bird could require up to twenty times the amount of oxygen necessary for humans. Therefore, the lungs of land animals cannot provide oxygen in the quantities required by birds. This is why the lungs of birds are created upon a much different design.
In land animals, air flow is bidirectional: air travels through a network of channels, and stops at the small air sacs. Oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange takes place here. Used air follows a reverse course in leaving the lung and is discharged through the windpipe.
On contrary, in birds, air flow is unidirectional. New air comes in one end, and the used air goes out the other end. This provides an uninterrupted supply of oxygen for birds, which satisfies their need for high levels of energy. Michael Denton, an Australian biochemist and a well-known critic of Darwinism, explains the avian lung in this way:
In the case of birds, the major bronchi break down into tiny tubes which permeate the lung tissue. These so-called parabronchi eventually join up together again, forming a true circulatory system so that air flows in one direction through the lungs…. Although air sacs occur in certain reptilian groups, the structure of the lung in birds and the overall functioning of the respiratory system is quite unique. No lung in any other vertebrate species is known which in any way approaches the avian system. Moreover, it is identical in all essential details in birds…19
In his book Evolution: A Theory in Crisis, Michael Denton also points out to the impossibility of formation of such a perfect system through progressive evolution:
Just how such an utterly different respiratory system could have evolved gradually from the standard vertebrate design is fantastically difficult to envisage, especially bearing in mind that the maintenance of respiratory function is absolutely vital to the life of an organism to the extent that the slightest malfunction leads to death within minutes. Just as the feather cannot function as an organ of flight until the hooks and barbules are coadapted to fit together perfectly, so the avian lung cannot function as an organ of respiration until the parabronchi system which permeates it and the air sac system which guarantees the parabronchi their air supply are both highly developed and able to function together in a perfectly integrated manner.20

Unidirectional airflow in the bird's lungs is facilitated by a system of air-sacs. These sacs collect air and then pump it regularly into the lung. In this way, there is always fresh air in the lungs. A complex respiratory system such as this has been created to satisfy birds' needs for high quantities of oxygen.

In short, the transition from terrestrial lung to avian lung is impossible due to the fact that the lung that would be in a transitional developmental stage would have no functionality. No creature without lungs can live for even a few minutes. Therefore, the creature simply would not have millions of years to wait for random mutations to save its life.
The unique structure of the avian lung demonstrates the presence of a perfect design that supplies the high levels of oxygen required for flight. It only takes a little bit of a common sense to see that the unparalleled anatomy of birds is not an arbitrary result of unconscious mutations. It is clear that the lungs of a bird are another of the countless evidences that all creatures have been created by Allah.

3-The System of Balance

Allah has created birds without flaw just as He has the rest of the creation. This fact is manifest in every detail. The bodies of birds have been created to a special design that removes any possible imbalance in flight. The bird's head has been deliberately created light in weight so that the animal does not lean forward during flight: on average, a bird's head weight is about 1% of its body weight.
The aerodynamic structure of the feathers is another property of the system of balance in birds. The feathers, especially in the wing and tail, provide a very effective system of balance for the bird.
These features ensure that a falcon maintains absolute balance while diving for its prey at a speed of 240 mph (384 km/h).

4- The Power and Energy Problem

Every process in the form of a sequence of events, i.e. in biology, chemistry or physics, conforms to the "Principle of the Conservation of Energy". In short, one can summarise this as "it takes a certain amount of energy to get a certain work done".
A significant example of this conservation can be observed in flight of birds. Migrating birds have to store enough energy to take them through their trip. On the other hand, another necessity in flight is being as light as possible. No matter what the results, extra weight has to be done away with. In the meantime, the fuel has also to be as efficient as possible. In other words, while the weight of fuel has to be at a minimum, the energy output from it has to be at a maximum. All of these problems have been solved for birds.
The first step is to determine the optimum speed for flight. If the bird is to fly very slowly, then a lot of energy has to be spent to remain aloft in the air. If the bird is to fly very fast, then fuel will be spent in overcoming air resistance. It is therefore obvious that an ideal speed has to be maintained in order to spend the least amount of fuel. Depending on the aerodynamic structure of the skeleton and wings, a different speed is ideal for each kind of bird.
Let us examine this energy problem as it relates to the Pacific golden plover (Pluvialis dominica fulva): this bird migrates from Alaska to Hawaii to spend its winters there. There are no islands on its route. Therefore, it has no possibility for rest. The flight is 2500 miles (4000 km) from start to finish and this roughly means 250,000 wing beats without break. The trip takes more than 88 hours.
The bird weighs 7 ounces (200g) at the start of the journey, 2,5 ounces (70g) of which is fat to be used as fuel. However, scientists, after calculating the amount of energy the bird needs for an hour of flight, determined that the bird needed 3 ounces (82g) of fuel for this flight. That is, there is a shortage of 0.4 ounce (12g) of fuel and the bird would have to run out of energy hundreds of miles before reaching Hawaii.
In spite of these calculations, the golden rain birds unfailingly reach Hawaii every year. What could the secret of these creatures be?
The Creator of these birds, Allah, inspires them with a method to make their flight easy and efficient. The birds do not fly haphazardly but in a flock. They follow a certain order and form a "V" shape in the air. This V formation reduces the air resistance that they encounter. This flight formation is so efficient that they save about 23% of their energy. This is how they still have 0.2 ounces (6-7g) of fat when they land. The extra fat is not a miscalculation but a cushion to be used in case of encountering reverse air currents.21
This extraordinary situation brings the following questions to mind:
How could the bird know how much fat is needed?
How could the bird manage to acquire all this fat before flight?
How could it calculate the distance and the amount of fuel it needs to burn?
How could the bird know that conditions in Hawaii are better than Alaska?
It is impossible for birds to reach this knowledge, to make these calculations, or to make group flights according to these calculations. This is an indication that the birds are "inspired" and directed by a superior power. Likewise Qur'an draws attention to "birds lined up in flight" and informs us about a consciousness that is inspired in these creatures by Allah:

Do you not see that everyone in the heavens and earth glorifies Allah, as do the birds with their outspread wings? Each one knows its prayer and glorification. Allah knows what they do. (Surat an-Nur: 41)

Have they not looked at the birds above them, with wings outspread and folded back? Nothing holds them up but the All-Merciful. He sees all things. (Surat al-Mulk: 19)

5- Digestion System

a swallow

Flight requires a great deal of power. For this reason birds have the largest muscle-tissue/body-mass ratio of all creatures. Their metabolism is also in tune with high levels of muscle power. On average, a creature's metabolism doubles as the body temperature increases by 500F (100C). The sparrow's 1080F (420C) body temperature and a fieldfare's 109.40F (43.50C)body temperature indicate how quickly their metabolism functions. Such a high body temperature, which would kill a land creature, is vitally important for a bird's survival by increasing energy consumption and, therefore, power.
Due to their need for a lot of energy, birds also have a body that digests the food they eat in an optimum fashion. Birds' digestive systems enable them to make the best use of the food they eat. For example, a baby stork puts on 2.2 lbs (1 kg) body mass for every 6.6 lbs (3 kg) food. In land animals with similar food choices, this ratio is about 2.2 lbs (1 kg) to 22 lbs. (10 kg). The circulatory system of birds has also been created in harmony with their high energy requirements. While a human's heart beats 78 times a minute, this rate is 460 for a sparrow and 615 for a humming bird. Similarly, blood circulation in birds is very fast. The oxygen that supplies all of these fast working systems is provided by special avian lungs.

Birds prefer to travel in flocks on long trips. The "V" formation of the flock enables each individual bird to save about 23% energy.

Birds also use their energy very efficiently. They demonstrate significantly higher efficiency in energy consumption than do land animals. For instance, a migrating swallow burns four kilocalories per mile (2.5 per kilometre) whereas a small land animal would burn 41 kilocalories.
Mutation cannot explain the differences between birds and land animals. Even if we assume one of these features to occur through random mutation, which is not a possibility, a single feature by itself does not make any sense. The formation of a high energy-producing metabolism has no meaning without specialised avian lungs. Moreover, this would cause the animal to choke from insufficient oxygen intake. If the respiratory system were to mutate before the other systems then the creature would inhale more oxygen than it needs, and would be harmed just the same. Another impossibility relates to the skeletal structure: even if the bird somehow obtained the avian lungs and metabolic adaptations it still could not fly. No matter how powerful, no land creature can take off from the ground due to its heavy and relatively segmented skeletal structure. The formation of wings also requires a distinct and flawless "design".
All of these facts take us to one result: it is simply impossible to explain the origin of birds through accidental growth or a theory of evolution. Thousands of different species of birds have been created with all their current physical features in "a moment". In other words, Allah has created them individually.

The sparrow's heart beats 460 times per minute. Its body temperature is 1080F (420C). Such a high body temperature, which would mean certain death for a land creature, is vitally important for a bird's survival. The high level of energy birds require for flight is generated by this rapid metabolism.

PERFECT FLIGHT TECHNIQUES

From albatrosses to vultures, all birds have been created equipped with flying techniques that make use of winds.
Since flying consumes a lot of energy, birds have been created with powerful breast muscles, large hearts and light skeletons. The evidence of superior creation in birds does not end with their bodies. Many birds have been inspired to use methods that decrease the energy required.
The kestrel is a wild bird that is well-known in Europe, Asia and Africa. It has a special ability: it can maintain its head in a perfectly still position in the air by facing the wind. Though its body may sway in the wind, its head remains motionless, which increases the excellence of its vision in spite of all the motion. A gyroscope, which is used to stabilise the weaponry of battleships at sea, works very similarly. This is why scientists usually label the bird's head "a gyro-stabilised head".22

Timing Techniques

Birds regulate their hunting schedules for optimum efficiency. Kestrels like to feed on rats. Rats typically live underground and surface every two hours to feed. Kestrels' feeding coincides with the rats'. They hunt during the day but eat their kill at night. Therefore, during the day, they fly on empty stomachs with less weight. This method cuts down the energy required. It has been calculated that the bird saves about 7% energy this way.23

Soaring in the Wind

Birds further reduce the energy consumed by utilising winds. They soar by increasing airflow on their wings and they can remain "suspended" in sufficiently powerful air currents. Up-drafts are an added advantage to them.
Making use of air currents in order to save energy in flight is called "soaring". The kestrel is one of the birds with this capability. The ability to soar is a sign of birds' superiority in the air.
Soaring has two major benefits. Firstly, it conserves energy needed to stay in the air while searching for food or defending the feeding ground. Secondly, it enables the bird to significantly increase its flight distances. A seagull can save up to 70% of its energy while soaring.24

Energy from Air Currents

Birds use air streams in different ways: A kestrel gliding down a hillside or a seagull diving along coastal cliffs make use of airstreams, and this is called "slope soaring".
When a strong wind passes over a hilltop, it forms waves of motionless air. Birds can soar on these waves as well. The gannet and many other seabirds make use of these motionless waves created by islands. Sometimes they use the currents generated by smaller obstacles such as ships, over which seagulls soar.
Fronts generally create the currents providing uplift for birds.
Fronts are interfaces between air masses of different temperatures or densities. The soaring of birds on these interfaces is referred to as "gust gliding". These fronts, which are especially formed at coasts by air currents coming from the sea, have been discovered by means of radar, through the observation of sea birds in flocks gliding in them. Two other kinds of soaring are known as thermal soaring and dynamic soaring.
Thermal soaring is a phenomenon observed especially in warm inland areas of the globe. As the sun heats the ground, the ground in turn heats the air above it. As the air gets warmer, it gets lighter and starts to rise. This event can also be observed in dust storms or other wind whirls.

The Soaring Technique of Vultures

Vultures utilise a special method in order to scan the earth below from an appropriate height riding rising columns of warm air, called the thermals. They can continuously make use of different thermals to sustain their soaring over very large areas for very long times.
At dawn, airwaves start rising. First, smaller vultures take off, riding weaker currents. As currents become stronger, larger birds take off as well. Vultures almost float upward in these ascending currents. The fastest rising air is located in the middle of the current. They fly in tight circles in order to balance uplift with gravitational forces. When they want to ascend, they draw closer to the centre of the currents.
Other hunting birds use thermals as well. Storks make use of these warm air currents, especially when migrating. The white stork lives in central Europe and migrates to Africa for winters on a journey of about 4350 miles (7000 kilometres). If they were to fly solely by flapping their wings, they would have to rest at least four times. Instead, the white storks complete their flights in three weeks by utilising warm air currents for up to 6-7 hours a day, which translates into big energy savings.
Since the waters warm up much later than the land, warm air currents are not formed over the seas, which is why birds that migrate over long distances do not choose to travel over water. Storks and other wild birds migrating from Europe to Africa choose to travel either over the Balkans and the Bosphorus, or over the Iberian Peninsula over the Gibraltar. The albatross, gannets, seagulls and other sea birds, on the other hand, use the air currents that are created by high waves. These birds take advantage of the uplift of air directed upwards on the tips of waves. While soaring on the air currents, the albatross frequently turns and heads into the wind and swiftly rises higher. After ascending 30-45 feet (10-15 metres) into the air, it changes direction again and continues soaring. The bird gains energy from changes in wind directions. The air currents lose speed when they hit the surface of the sea. This is why the albatross encounters stronger currents at higher altitudes. After attaining adequate speed, it returns to gliding close to the surface of the sea. Many other birds such as the shearwater use similar techniques while soaring on the sea.

Vultures can reach their food before their rivals, the hyenas, due to their flight techniques. In the figure above, the griffon vulture feeding on a carcass catches the attention of a lappet-faced vulture and a hyena. However, even the hyena's highest speed of 25 mph (40 km/h) is not enough to reach the carcass in time. The hyena can reach a carcass 2.2 miles away (3.5 kilometres) in 4.25 minutes whereas the lappet-faced vulture reaches the carcass in three minutes at a speed of 44 mph (70 km/h).

The albatross with a wingspan of 10 feet (3 metres) is one of the world's largest birds. Such a large body requires a lot of energy for flight. However, the albatross can fly long distances without flapping its wings by using the dynamic soaring method. This technique saves this creature tremendous amounts of energy.

Wild geese climb up to 5 miles (8 kilometres). However, at about 3.1 miles (5 kilometres), the atmosphere is 65% less dense than at sea level. A bird flying at this height has to flap its wings much faster, which would require much more oxygen. In sharp contrast to mammals, the lungs of these creatures have been created to make best use of the sparse oxygen supply at these altitudes.	The skimmer lacks oil protecting its feathers from water. Therefore, it does not dive for its prey. Its lower bill is longer and sensitive to touch. Its wings are shaped such that it can fly very close to the surface of the water for a long time without flapping its wings. It dips its lower bill in the water and flies while using this technique. It captures any prey that its lowered bill hits.

Slope soaring depends on the movement of air rising to the hilltop.	Vortex ring type thermal soaring takes place under the base of a big cumulus cloud.
Columnar type thermal soaring is only possible in warm regions.	Gust soaring is possible where two fronts meet.

DESIGN IN BIRDS

The visual faculties of birds hunting during the daytime are far superior to humans. A human can see a rat in the distance as a blur without focus, whereas a falcon can see the same animal at same distance in much greater detail.
The eyes of an owl are located to the front of its head. This design provides the bird with a superb "binocular" vision. Yet it also creates a wide blind field. This blind field is by no means disadvantageous to the bird since it can rotate its head 270 degrees and look behind itself easily. ( left) Eyes located on both sides of head provide the pigeon with a very wide visual field (orange and yellow areas). (right) The rain bird moves extremely fast with swift manoeuvres in the air, which requires an even wider visual field than most birds. Large eyes located on both sides of its head provide this field of vision.
The woodpecker can easily reach larva hidden in tree trunks by its tongue. Humming birds can collect flower nectar by using their slim, forked tongues.
For some birds, a keen sense of smell is vitally important. The black vulture can locate carcasses from great distances because of its advanced sense of smell.
The most advanced senses of birds are vision and hearing. Birds that usually hunt by day have better visual faculties. The hearing of birds that prey at night is superior to other faculties.Some birds that hunt by diving, such as herons and cormorants, are equipped with eye structures that enable them to see effectively in water. The cornea of their eyes is flatter, which gives refraction and better vision. The eyes of most birds are located on both sides of the head. Hence, they have a wide angle of view. The frontal location of the eyes of wild birds that prey at night is another flawless design because these birds require "binocular" vision more than a wide angle view, and binocular vision (the area in which both eyes can see an object) has a narrow angle of view but more depth and focus just as does human vision. Birds have other interesting senses as well, which enable them not only to perceive vibrations in the air but also to navigate their routes by following the magnetic fields of the earth.

PERFECT DESIGNS FOR FLYING, SWIMMING AND RUNNING

The skeletons of birds are designed to effectively enable them to fly, walk and even swim in the fastest and most efficient way.
All flying birds are equipped with an extremely strong breastbone (sternum)which has a large flattened plate, called a keel, for the attachment of flight muscles. The muscles wrapping this bone facilitate flight.
The part of the skeleton called the breast plate constitutes a very sturdy support for the wing bones, and is comprised of the breast bone and wishbone that is unique to birds. The bones that carry the wings are very long and fused together. The wing tip feathers attach to the fused "hand" bones. The pelvic girdle extends both downward and backward in order to enable the leg muscles to work more effectively.

RIB CAGE The breast bones of birds are relatively inflexible for protection of the body when the wings are closed. That is, the volume of the rib cage does not change during flight, inhalation or exhalation.

BONESSince birds are designed for the purpose of flight, their bones are hollow and wrapped with muscles, which provide miraculous lightness without compromising strength.

The wings are pulled downward by the contracting muscles. When the wings are raised and the small breast muscles (supracoracoideus) are contracted, the large breast muscles (pectoralis major) are flexed. When the large breast muscles are contracted and the small breast muscles are flexed, the wings are lowered.

"Running birds", such as the ostrich, have long legs and strong muscles that function in running, whereas predator birds have shortened bodies and relatively spinal cord sloped, which enables them to move more swiftly.

Sparrows have keeled sternum that enables them to fly for extended periods. This bone is covered with breast muscles.

Praise be to Allah, to Whom everything in the heavens and everything in the earth belongs. Praise will be His in the Hereafter. He is the Wise, the Informed. He knows what penetrates the earth and what issues from it, and what falls down from the sky and what soars up into it. He is the Most Merciful, the Ever-Forgiving." (Surah Saba': 1-2)

A night owl, with a wingspan of 21.7 inches (55 centimetres), is an ideal night hunter. Its large eyes are lodged in the front its head. This location is very advantageous in its finding its prey. Another property of its eyes is the capability for night vision.

In addition, owls can rotate their heads three-quarters of the way around, which further adds to the size of their visual field. The ears of this bird are also very sensitive. It can hear from its place on the branch of a tree the quite noises that a rat makes in the bushes. It can flap its wings virtually without a sound. The owl latches on to trees or to its prey with large and powerful claws. One easily sees that this creature is created as the ideal night predator.

Humankind made a tremendous leap in flight technology in the 20th century. One of the key ingredients in this advance was the study by scientists of the designs found of the bodies of birds. In the design of aircraft, many aerodynamic principles found in birds are implemented, leading to very successful applications. This is due to the flawless creation of birds, just as in the perfection evident in the rest of the creation.

DESIGN IN BIRD EGGS

The miraculous creation of birds does not end with wings, feathers or their migration skills. Another extraordinary design feature of these creatures is in their eggs.
However ordinary it may seem to us, the egg of a chicken has about fifteen thousand pores resembling dimples on a golf ball. The spongy structure of smaller eggs can only be observed under the microscope. These spongy structures give eggs added flexibility and increase their resistance to impact.
An egg is a miracle of packaging. It supplies all the nutrients and water that the developing foetus needs. The yolk of the egg stores protein, fats, vitamins and minerals, and the white works as a reservoir of fluid.
The developing chick needs to inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. It also requires a source of heat, calcium for its bone development, protection of its fluids, protection against bacteria and physical impact. The eggshell provides all of these for the chick, which breathes through a membranous sac that develops in the embryo. Blood vessels in this sac bring oxygen to the embryo and take carbon dioxide away.
Eggshells are amazingly thin and sturdy, and so transmit the body heat of the brooding parent.

Chicks have a special "egg tooth" that they use only to hatch the egg. This tooth is formed just before hatching and, amazingly, disappears after hatching.	The eggshell is strong enough to protect the embryo during twenty days of incubation. However, it is also easily breakable so that the chick can emerge.

A Necessary Loss

During incubation, the egg loses 16% of its water content in the form of evaporation. Scientists long believed this to be harmful and due to the porous structure of the eggshell. However, the most recent research shows this loss to be necessary for the chick to emerge from the egg. The chick needs oxygen and space to be able to move its head just enough to crack the shell while hatching. The evaporation of water creates the room and oxygen required.
Furthermore, water loss ratio is adjusted to vary between 15 to 20% for ideal conditions depending on the type of eggshell. For instance, water loss in the eggs of loons is a few times higher than in others that incubate under dryer conditions.

The Design of an Egg for Durability

The durability of an eggshell is as crucial as its functioning in terms of air, water and heat. It has to withstand external impact as well as the weight of the incubating parent.
A closer examination reveals that eggs are designed for sufficient durability. Allah created smaller and larger eggs different from one another. Eggs of larger birds are usually harder and less flexible whereas eggs of smaller birds are softer and more elastic.
Chicken eggs are rigid and rough, but they do not break when falling over one another. The rigid shell also protects them from attack. If smaller eggs were to be as rigid and rough as the chicken egg, they would have broken much easier. Studies show smaller eggs are not rigid, but sturdy and flexible, which prevents them from breaking under impact.
The flexibility in the structure of an egg not only serves to protect the chick but also determines the way that the chick hatches it. A chick that will come out of a rigid and rough shell only needs to open a couple of holes at the blunt end of the egg before pushing its head and legs out. The chick meets the world by lifting the hat-shaped end cover that is formed by the cracks connecting these holes.25

The figure shows phases of development of a chicken egg in the ovary. It takes about fifteen to sixteen hours for a chicken egg to form after fertilisation.

Eggshells are created in such a way as to supply oxygen to the chick inside through the porous holes. The figure above illustrates the passage of carbon dioxide, water and oxygen through the pores.

(left) The figure above shows the shell of the loon egg laid on wet and muddy ground. The shell is covered with a layer called the "inorganic spheres layer", which prevents the pores from closing and the chick from suffocating. (right) The eggs of birds living under different conditions vary as well. The figure above shows the section of an eggshell of the egg of a rainbird. The specially crystallised outer layer protects the egg, where it is laid in a gravel bed, against impact and scratches.

Eggs of many birds are created with camouflage colours. Loon eggs resemble the form of a pear, which is the ideal shape for sharp rock formations. When they receive an impact, they do not fall easily but roll around in circles.